Serving and ex-serving First Nations Australian Defence Force members

Introduction

This is the first AIHW article on First Nations Australians who are serving and ex-serving members of the ADF (collectively referred to as veterans).

Understanding the demographic, health and welfare characteristics of First Nations veterans is important because these persons are intersectional for 2 populations that have been identified as being at higher risk of suicide (Suicide Prevention Australia 2023). First Nations people face systemic inequalities in health status and outcomes, determinants of health, and access to culturally appropriate health and welfare services (AIHW 2025). Veterans generally experience mental health risks associate with the unique nature of their service work with the Australian Defence Force (ADF). Therefore, First Nations persons who are also veterans may have different service experiences that require tailored support during and after ADF service.

The population of First Nations veterans is believed to be relatively small which has caused difficulty in previously reporting on this population. However, the introduction of a question on ADF service in the 2021 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Census of Population and Housing has enabled population level analysis of First Nations veterans for the first time.

This article commences by providing contextual information on the demographics and health of First Nations Australians and veterans. This is followed by a snapshot analysis of the basic demographic, welfare and health characteristics of First Nations veterans based on the ABS Census. The article concludes by discussing the data sources, limitations and potential future directions for research on First Nations veterans.

The article does not establish causal links between the observed demographic characteristics or the presence of health conditions for First Nations veterans with their First Nations status and/or impact of ADF service. While comparisons to other population groups are provided, they are purely for the purpose of context. Any differences between veteran and non-veteran-related groups cannot be directly attributed to First Nations status and/or impact of ADF service alone.

First Nations Australians

In 2021 there were about 984,000 First Nations people living in Australia, representing 3.8% of the total Australian population. Of all First Nations people, 91.7% identified as Aboriginal, 4.0% identified as Torres Strait Islander, and 4.3% identified as both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander. Overall, there were slightly more males (50.2%) than females, but females outnumbered males in age groups over 35 years. This was similar to the pattern observed for non-Indigenous Australians (ABS 2023b).

First Nations people have a younger population structure than non-Indigenous Australians. A third (33%) of First Nations people were aged under 15 years compared with 18% of non-Indigenous Australians. People aged 65 years and over were 5% of the First Nations population, compared with 17% of the non-Indigenous population. The age structure of males and females within First Nations populations are similar (ABS 2023b).

Among First Nations people, 41% live in Major cities, 44% live in Inner and Outer regional areas, and 15% live in Remote and Very remote areas combined in 2021 (AIHW 2024b). New South Wales has the most First Nations people (35%), followed by Queensland (28%). The Northern Territory had the highest proportion of First Nations residents among its population in 2021 (31%) (ABS 2023b). For further information about First Nations people, see First Nations people Overview.

Health and welfare

First Nations people demonstrate remarkable resilience and strength in the face of historical and ongoing challenges. The enduring impacts of colonisation and past policies, such as the forced removal of children (Stolen Generations), systemic health inequalities, and barriers to culturally appropriate health and welfare services have contributed to disparities in health outcomes (Calma et al. 2025). Addressing these systemic issues can help reduce the prevalence and early onset of chronic conditions that are more common and occur at a younger age among First Nations people compared with non-Indigenous Australians (AIHW 2024a).

First Nations males born in 2020–2022 are expected to live to 71.9 years and females to 75.6 years, and non-Indigenous males and females to 80.6 years and 83.8 years respectively (Productivity Commission n.d.). Life expectancy for First Nations males and females at all ages is lower than for non-Indigenous Australians (ABS 2023a).

In 2022, First Nations people aged 17 years and over were less likely to self-rate their health as excellent or very good (44%) compared with non-Indigenous Australians (57%) (ABS 2024).

Mental health and suicide

Almost 3 in 10 First Nations people (29%) reported having a current, long-term mental health or behavioural condition in 2022–23. Approximately 30% of First Nations people aged 18 years and over reported high or very high levels of psychological distress in the past 4 weeks in 2022–23 (ABS 2024).

After adjusting for age, the rate of death by suicide for First Nations males was 2.9 times that of non-Indigenous males and 2.6 times for First Nations females compared with non-Indigenous females (see First Nations people - Suicide & self-harm monitoring and Suicide prevention - AIHW Indigenous MHSPC). However, rates vary by community, age group and sex (AIHW 2025b). In 2023, suicide was the 5th leading cause of death among First Nations people, and the 16th leading cause of death for non-Indigenous Australians (AIHW 2024c).

First Nations veterans

Historically, many First Nations people were rejected from enlisting during World War I, with some serving by concealing their identities (AIATSIS n.d.). However, around 1,000 to 1,300 First Nations people (from a population of 80,000) still served in the Australian Imperial Force (Bell 2017). From World War II onward, First Nations people could freely enlist in the Australian Defence Force (ADF). Over 4,000 served in World War II, and at least 300 in the Vietnam War (AIATSIS n.d.). First Nations members have served in deployments since 1975, however numbers have not been made available (Australian War Memorial n.d.). First Nations people comprise 60% of an ADF unit known as the North-West Mobile Force (NORFORCE) which was formed in 1981. NORFORCE use their local knowledge of Country and community to patrol 1.8 million square kilometres across the Northern Territory and Darwin (Deadly Story n.d.).

Previously, information on veterans who are First Nations people was limited to current serving member information collected by the Department of Defence through the ADF Census. The ADF Census has been conducted in 4 yearly intervals since initiation in 1991, with the most recent one in 2023 (only 2015 onwards is available online). It should be noted that the 2023 ADF Census did not include all current serving members as the response rate was 47% among permanent members and 40% among reserve members (ADF 2024).

In the 2023 ADF Census, 3.9% of permanent serving members identified as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander, with the majority being Aboriginal. The service with the highest proportion of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander permanent serving members was Navy (4.4%), followed by Army (4.1%) and Air Force (3.2%) (ADF 2024). Among reserve members, 3.1% were Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander with the majority being Aboriginal. The service with the highest proportion of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander reserve members was Army (3.5%), followed by Air Force (2.5%) then Navy (1.5%) (ADF 2024).

There has been limited research on the health and welfare of Australian First Nations veterans. Information on the overall veteran population is available at Health of veterans.

Characteristics of First Nations veterans

The following analyses present a snapshot of First Nations veterans based on information collected in the 2021 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Census of Population and Housing (Box 3). Characteristics are compared with First Nations people who have never served in the ADF and with all other veterans.

In Australia in 2021, there were 14,700 First Nations veterans comprising 2.5% of all veterans. There were 11,900 male First Nations veterans (81% of all First Nations veterans) and 2,800 female First Nations veterans (19% of all First Nations veterans). A higher proportion of female veterans (3.3%) identified as First Nations compared with male veterans (2.4%).

Most First Nations veterans were Aboriginal (88%), followed by Torres Strait Islander (7%), and both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (5%). Table 1 shows the number and proportion of First Nations veterans by identity and by ADF status.

Of all First Nations veterans, 11,600 (79%) were ex-serving and 3,100 (21%) were current serving ADF members. In comparison, a higher proportion (86%) of all other veterans were ex-serving, suggesting that the proportion of serving members who are First Nations people has increased over time. This is backed up by data in the ADF Annual reports which state that the proportion of First Nations regular (permanent) members was 3.9% in June 2024, up from 1.3% in June 2014.

Source: 2021 Australian Bureau of Statistics Census of Population and Housing, population aged 17 and older.

Note that sums do not add to totals due to perturbation. Proportions based on small counts should be interpreted with caution due to perturbation. First Nations status and ADF status are self-identified.

First Nations veterans were younger than all other veterans

In 2021, 59% of First Nations veterans were aged between 17 and 54 years.

Among First Nations current serving regular members, 74% were younger than 35 years old. In this age group, the proportion of female First Nations current serving regular members (81%) was higher than male First Nations regular members (72%).

Among First Nations current serving reserve members, 50% were 35–64 years old. This proportion was similar for both males and females.

Among First Nations ex-serving members 15% were 17–34 years old, 56% were 35–64 years old, and 29% were 65 years and older. Female First Nations ex-serving members were younger than male First Nations ex-serving members. For example, the proportion of females aged 65 and older was 18% compared with 32% for males.

Compared with First Nations people who have never served in the ADF, First Nations veterans were older. Around 2 out of 5 (41%) First Nations veterans were 55 years and older, compared with one out of 5 (21%) First Nations people who have never served. As described above, the age of First Nations veterans varied substantially by their ADF service status.

In 2021, the First Nations veteran population was younger than the all other veterans population. While 59% of First Nations veterans were aged between 17 and 54 years, only 38% of all other veterans were in the same age group, with a higher proportion aged 55 years and older.

Figure 1 shows the age distribution of veterans by ADF status for First Nations and all other Australians.

First Nations current serving regular members were younger than all other current serving regular members. The proportion younger than 35 years was 74% for First Nations members while it was 59% for all other members.

First Nations reserve members were also younger than all other reserve members. The proportion of First Nations reserve members aged 35–64 years was 50% compared with 64% for all other reserve members.

The First Nations ex-serving members were younger than all other ex-serving members. The proportion of all other ex-serving members aged 65 and older (54%) was close to double the proportion of First Nations ex-serving members in this age group (29%).

More detail on current and ex-serving members by First Nations status and age group is shown in Figure 2.

Most First Nations veterans live in major cities or inner regional areas

Remoteness areas divide Australia into 5 classes of remoteness which are characterised by a measure of relative geographic access to services.

Most First Nations veterans lived in Major cities (46%) or Inner regional areas (25%) in 2021. The proportion of First Nations veterans who lived in Outer regional areas was 20%, Remote areas was 3% and Very remote areas was 6%.

In comparison with First Nations people who have never served in the ADF, a slightly higher proportion of First Nations veterans lived in Major cities (46% compared with 42%) and a lower proportion lived in Remote (3% compared with 6%) and Very remote areas (6% compared with 10%).

In comparison with all other veterans, a higher proportion of First Nations veterans lived in Outer regional (20% compared with 12%), Remote (3% compared with 1%) and Very remote areas (6% compared with 0.4%).

The higher proportion of First Nations veterans living in Outer regional and Remote areas was consistent for regular, reserve and ex-serving members. The proportion of current serving reserve members who lived in Very remote areas was much higher for First Nations reserve members (18%) compared with First Nations people who have never served (10%) and all other reserve members (0.4%). Likewise, the proportion of current serving regular members who lived in Very remote areas was more than 10 times higher for First nations members (3.3%) compared with all other members (0.2%).

More than half of First Nations veterans had a tertiary education qualification

Over half (54%) of First Nations veterans had a tertiary education qualification in 2021. This included 14% of First Nations veterans who had a bachelor’s degree or higher qualification. These proportions varied by sex, age and ADF status. More female First Nations veterans had a bachelor’s degree or higher qualification (21%) than male First Nations veterans (12%). This pattern was consistent across ADF service status and across age groups.

Male and female current serving reserve First Nations members had higher educational attainment than regular and ex-serving First Nations members in the same age and sex groups. For example, among male First Nations veterans aged 35 to 64 years, a quarter (23%) of reserve members had a bachelor’s degree or higher qualification. This was higher than the proportion among equivalent First Nations regular (16%), ex-serving (15%) and First Nations people had never served in the ADF (7%). Female and male First nations veterans had higher educational attainment than the equivalent age and sex group of First Nations people who have never served in the ADF.

A lower proportion of First Nations people in each ADF cohort had a bachelor’s degree or higher qualification than all other veterans. This pattern was consistent for males and females and similar across age groups.

Around two-thirds of working age First Nations ex-serving members were employed

For veterans who are still of working age, gaining employment after separation from the ADF is an important part of the transition into civilian life.

In this section, ‘employed’ includes people who are employed full-time, part-time and employed but away from work. ‘Not in labour force’ means that a person is not working and not seeking employment.

Two-thirds (66%) of First Nations ex-serving members aged 17–34 years were employed, and 62% of First Nations ex-serving members aged 35–64 years were employed. The proportion of First Nations ex-serving members who were unemployed was 8.4% for people aged 17–34 years and 4.1% for people aged 35–64 years. A large proportion of First Nations ex-serving members in both age groups (24% and 33% respectively) were not seeking employment (not in the labour force). There are many possible reasons for a person to not be in the labour force and from this high-level analysis alone, it is not possible to deduce any reasons.

Among First Nations people, a higher proportion of ex-serving members aged 17–34 years were employed (66%) compared with similar aged First Nations people who had never served (55%). This pattern was also observed for First Nations people aged 35–64 years (62% compared with 55%). Furthermore, a lower proportion of First Nations ex-serving members were unemployed or not in the labour force than similar aged First Nations people who had never served.

The proportion of all other ex-serving members aged 17–34 years and 35–64 years who were employed in 2021 (81% and 75%, respectively) was higher than the proportion of First Nations ex-serving members of a similar age who were employed (66% and 62%, respectively). The proportion of all other ex-serving members aged 17–34 years and 35–64 years who were unemployed (3.9% and 3.0%, respectively) was lower than the proportion of First Nations ex-serving members of a similar age who were unemployed (8.4% and 4.1%, respectively). These patterns were similar for both males and females.

2 out of 5 First Nations veterans had a weekly household income of $2,000 or more

The median total household income for Australia in 2021 was $1,746 per week (APH 2022).

More than 2 out of 5 (42%) First Nations veterans had a weekly household income of $2,000 or more per week in 2021. This proportion varied by age and ADF status. The proportion of First Nations veterans with a weekly household income of $2,000 or more was:

• 51% of regular members aged 17–34 years and 63% of those aged 35–64 years
• 53% of reserve members aged 17–34 years and 56% of those aged 35–64 years
• 52% of ex-serving members aged 17–34 years, 47% of those aged 35–64 years and 17% of those aged 65 years and older.

Among First Nations people, veterans had a higher weekly household income compared with people who had never served in the ADF. The proportion of First Nations people who have never served with a weekly household income of $2,000 or more per week was 41% for people aged 17–34 years and 36% for people aged 35–64 years. The income difference was larger for female veterans than for males.

First Nations veterans had lower weekly household incomes when compared with all other veterans of a similar age. This pattern was consistent across each ADF service status and age group.

Almost half of First Nations veterans lived in a household with 3 or more people

Close to half (46%) of First Nations veterans lived in a household with 3 or more people in 2021. The proportion of First Nations veterans aged 17–34 years in a household with 3 or more people was higher than First Nations veterans aged 65 years and older (56% compared with 22%).

A lower proportion of First Nations veterans (46%) lived in a household with 3 or more people compared with First Nations people who have never served in the ADF (64%). This pattern was observed across all age groups.

In comparison to all other veterans, a higher proportion of First Nations veterans lived in a household with 3 or more people (46% compared with 34%).

Around half of First Nations veterans owned a home

Around half (52%) of First Nations veterans owned a home in 2021, either through a mortgage or by outright ownership, and 45% were renting. These proportions varied by age and ADF service status. The proportion of First Nations veterans who owned a home was lowest for people age 17–34 years (30%), followed by people aged 35–64 years (55%) and highest for people aged 65 years and older (68%). Among First Nations veterans, a lower proportion of regular members owned a home, compared with reserve and ex-serving members.

A higher proportion of First Nations veterans aged 35 years and over owned a home in comparison with similar aged First Nations people who had never served in the ADF.

A lower proportion of First Nations veterans owned a home compared with all other veterans in each age group. The pattern of a lower proportion of regular members owning a home, compared with reserve and ex-serving members was also observed for all other veterans.

First Nations ex-serving members experienced less homelessness than First Nations people who have never served

In 2021, there were estimated to be 250 First Nations ex-serving members who were experiencing homelessness or living in marginal housing. This was 2.2% of First Nations ex-serving members.

The proportion of First Nations people who have never served in the ADF and were experiencing homelessness or living in marginal housing was over double that of First Nations ex-serving members (4.8%).

The proportion of all other ex-serving members who were experiencing homelessness or living in marginal housing was 0.4%.

Almost 4 out of 5 First Nations veterans over 65 years were living with a long-term health condition

This section discusses the prevalence of veterans with a self-reported, selected long-term health condition. The conditions analysed included: arthritis, asthma, cancer, dementia, diabetes, heart disease, kidney disease, lung condition, mental health condition and stroke (for more information see Type of long-term health condition).

Due to the different age distribution of First Nations veterans compared with other veterans and First Nations people who have never served, analyses of long-term health conditions are based on age-specific comparisons (see Chronic conditions).

The proportion of First Nations veterans with one or more selected long-term health conditions was:

• 22% for veterans aged 17 to 34
• 52% for veterans aged 35 to 64
• 79% for veterans aged 65 and over.

Among similar aged First Nations veterans, a higher proportion of ex-serving members had one or more health conditions than current serving (regular and reserve combined) members. This was a pattern also observed for all other veterans.

In comparison with First Nations people who had never served, a lower proportion of First Nations veterans aged 17–34 had one or more health conditions but a higher proportion aged 35 and older had one or more health conditions.

The proportion of all other veterans with one or more selected long-term health conditions was 16% for veterans aged 17 to 34 years, 38% for veterans aged 35 to 64 years and 70% for veterans aged 65 years and over.

The proportion of First Nations veterans with multimorbidity (2 or more long-term health conditions) was higher in each age group compared with all other veterans. This pattern was observed for current serving and ex-serving veterans and both males and females.

A quarter of First Nations veterans aged 35–64 had mental health conditions

Around 3,200 or 22% of First Nations veterans had a mental health condition in 2021, making it the most common long-term health condition overall. The prevalence of mental health conditions was highest for First Nations veterans aged 35–64 years (27%), followed by veterans aged 65 years and older (21%), then 17–34 years (12%).

The prevalence of mental health conditions was higher among ex-serving members (25%) than current serving (regular and reserve combined) members (9%). This was consistent across age groups. The difference peaked in the 35–64 years group (28% prevalence compared with 17%).

Among First Nations people, a lower proportion of veterans aged 17 to 34 years had a mental health condition (12%) compared with those who have never served in the ADF (19%). However, First Nations veterans had higher prevalence of mental health conditions than First Nations people who have never served for those aged 35 to 64 years (27% compared with 20%) and 65 years and older (21% compared with 13%).

The proportion of First Nations veterans with mental health conditions (22%) was higher than the proportion among all other veterans (14%).

One in 5 First Nations veterans aged 35–64 years had arthritis

This section focuses on comparisons across similar aged groups because chronic conditions become more common with age (see Chronic conditions).

The second most common long-term health condition overall, after mental health conditions, for First Nations veterans was arthritis. One in 5 (20%) First Nations veterans aged 35–64 years had arthritis and close to 2 in 5 (38%) aged 65 years and over had arthritis, making it the most common health condition for this age group. For First Nations veterans aged 17–34 years, arthritis affected 3.8%. The most common health condition after mental health (12%) was asthma (9%).

Among First Nations people aged 35–64 years, veterans had a higher incidence of arthritis, heart disease, lung conditions and cancer compared with those who have never served. These patterns were consistent for current serving and ex-serving members and both males and females.

The prevalence of arthritis in First Nations veterans was higher than among all other veterans of a similar age.

Figure 3 shows the prevalence of long-term health conditions for First Nations veterans.

3 out of 10 First Nations ex-serving members aged 65 and older needed assistance with core activities

In 2021, 3 out of 10 (30%) First Nations ex-serving members aged 65 years and over needed assistance with core activities including self-care, body movement and communication, due to a long-term health condition or disability. Among First Nations members aged 35–64 years, a higher proportion of ex-serving members (14%) needed assistance with core activities than current serving members (6%).

A higher proportion of First Nations ex-serving members aged 35 years and older (20%) needed assistance with core activities compared with First Nations people of the same age group who have never served (13%). For First Nations people aged 17–34 years, the proportion of ex-serving members who needed assistance for core activities (5%) was similar to First Nations people who have never served (5%).

A higher proportion of First Nations ex-serving members aged 65 years and over needed assistance with core activities (30%) compared with all other ex-serving members of a similar age (20%). For those aged 35 years and older, more First Nations ex-serving members (20%) needed assistance with core activities compared with all other ex-serving members of a similar age (14%). For ex-serving members aged 17–34 years, the proportion of First Nations members who needed assistance was 5% compared with 3% for all other ex-serving members. This pattern was consistent for both males and females.

Female First Nations veterans had more carer responsibilities than male First Nations veterans

In 2021, 17% of First Nations veterans provided unpaid assistance to a person with a disability, health condition, or due to old age. The highest proportion of First Nations veterans providing unpaid assistance was for veterans aged 35–64 years (21%), with females (29%) having a higher proportion of carer responsibilities compared with males (19%).

In comparison, 15% of First Nations people who have never served had unpaid carer responsibilities. A higher proportion of both male (18%) and female (28%) First Nations veterans aged 35 years and older provided unpaid carer assistance than First Nations males (14%) and females (22%) who have never served.

The proportion of all other veterans who had unpaid carer responsibilities was 14%. The pattern of First Nations veterans providing more unpaid care was observed for both males, females, current and ex-serving members.

Data sources on First Nations veterans

ABS Census of Population and Housing

The analysis outlined in this article is drawn from the 2021 ABS Census. The 2021 Census was the first census to include a question on previous or current Australian Defence Force (ADF) service. The Census also includes a question on whether people identify as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander. This article includes First Nations veterans, that is, people who, in the 2021 Census, identified as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander and had previously or currently served in the ADF.

The non-response rate for the ADF service question was 6.0% and the non-response rate for the Indigenous status question was 4.9%.

The Census data also includes socio-demographic information and can be linked with other data sources that collect person-level information to provide further insight into the health and welfare characteristics of First Nations veterans.

Other data sources

In addition to Census data, there are various survey and administrative data sources that can provide information on First Nations veterans. The data relies on people self-identifying as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander. Some data sources rely on self-identification of veteran status, whereas others do not. The downloadable supplementary table provides an overview of First Nations data sources.

Many of the data sources in the Supplementary table are available via linked data assets which can combine information on veterans and First Nations people with other data on health or welfare:

1. The National Health Data Hub (NHDH) includes Emergency Department (ED), National Death Index (NDI), Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), Medicare Benefits Schedule (MBS), Aged Care Services, and National Insurance Disability Scheme (NDIS) data. The NHDH includes DVA client / card holder status.
2. The Person Level Integrated Data Asset (PLIDA) combines information on health, education, government payments, income and taxation, employment and population demographics (including the Census) over time. PLIDA includes ADF status and DVA client/card holder status.

Future directions

This article provided an overview of existing knowledge, presented exploratory analysis using Census data, and outlined information on data sources on First Nations veterans.

First Nations veterans seem to experience positive outcomes such as higher educational attainment, employment and home ownership relative to First Nations persons who have never served in the ADF. However health outcomes were mixed and there are areas where gaps exist between First Nations veterans and all other veterans.

First Nations peoples have a more holistic conceptualisation around health and wellbeing relative to most non-Indigenous Australians (AIHW 2024a). This may differently impact their perception and self-rating of mental and physical health. Therefore, further health and welfare research on First Nations veterans could examine objective and self-rated data.

The characteristics analysed in this article could benefit from in-depth research using longitudinal or linked data to better understand associations between ADF service and health and wellbeing outcomes for First Nations persons.

While more research is needed to identify health and wellbeing characteristics of First Nations veterans, there are issues that may substantially impact research quality. In addition to constraints on data availability or data quality limitations, some research may be limited by small sample sizes, particularly for analyses of statistically rare events such as deaths by suicide. Another important consideration is whether First Nations persons choose to disclose their identity.

Results presented in this article showed that First Nations veterans had higher prevalence of mental health conditions than all other veterans, so understanding this group’s use of mental health services could be a focus of further research. Other future lines of enquiry could include:

• suicidality and intentional self-harm based on use of emergency department or admitted hospital care
• causes of death
• burden of disease.