Social cohesion and social connection is an Australia's welfare topic

Social cohesion and social connection are interrelated. Social cohesion is a multi-dimensional concept referring to social connectedness (the ‘glue’ that connects members of a society (AIHW 2005)), solidarity and trust amongst individuals, within and across communities and organisations, and within society at large. Societies with higher levels of social cohesion are healthier, more resilient to external shocks, and experience greater economic growth (UNECE 2023).

What are social cohesion and social connection?

Understanding social cohesion

There are many definitions of social cohesion. Cohesiveness is created from connections based on a shared sense of belonging and attachment, similar values, trust and a sense of ‘social solidarity’ (AIHW 2005). It encompasses the connections and relationships between individuals, groups and associations. It is influenced by society’s level of trust in government and within society (which, along with happiness and belonging, can be influenced by financial wellbeing), and willingness to participate collectively toward a shared vision of sustainable peace and common development goals (UNDP 2020). It is described as being a foundation for achieving peace, democracy and equitable development.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) further explains that ‘a cohesive society works towards the well-being of all its members, fights exclusion and marginalisation, creates a sense of belonging, promotes trust, and offers its members the opportunity of upward mobility’ (OECD 2011). In essence, a socially cohesive society is one where the quality of social relationships and the existence of trust, mutual obligations, and respect in communities all combine to help protect people and their health (Science Direct 2024).

Understanding social connection

Social connections refer to the ways that people interact with and relate to one another. They concern the quantity and quality of time individuals spend with one another, alongside the support they feel they have (Mahoney et al. 2024).

The OECD broadly defines the main categories of social connectedness as:

  • Structure: encompasses people’s connection to others via the existence of social relationships, roles and interactions.
  • Function: aims to capture the actual or perceived support provided by people’s relationships.
  • Quality: acknowledges the positive and negative aspects in one’s social relationships (for example, relationship satisfaction, closeness, strain, conflict).
  • Communal and societal connectedness: measures how individuals relate to one another, including social acceptance and discrimination, and a sense of belonging (Mahoney et al. 2024).

Social cohesion and social connection are interconnected

Social cohesiveness and connectedness are interrelated, and both are referenced in frameworks that measure them. Social connection can affect the cohesiveness of communities, and similarly the level of social cohesion in a community can affect peoples’ ability to connect socially.

In the context of social connectedness, in a socially cohesive society, people can connect with their family and friends and participate fully in the community through cultural, social and religious activities (Treasury 2023). Under the Measuring What Matters framework, the concept of social connection is measured within the Cohesive theme, defined as ‘A society that supports connections with family, friends and the community, values diversity, and promotes belonging and culture’ (Treasury 2023).

How does social cohesion and connectedness affect our wellbeing?

The time people spend together, the activities they engage in with one another, and the quality and diversity of their relationships play an important role in determining overall health, happiness and wellbeing (Mahoney et al. 2024). Social cohesion is an important determinant of wellbeing and expresses the extent to which societies are integrated or divided. Being involved in the community and having meaningful connections with other people are also determinants of wellbeing, and how socially connected we are is important in shaping wellbeing across the lifespan (AIHW 2021).

Relationships are integral to the human experience and understanding the health of these relationships is part of a holistic view of wellbeing (Relationships Australia 2023). Good social relationships can foster health, creativity, self-esteem, job satisfaction, cooperative behaviours and encourage social mobility and crime reduction.

During difficult times, social cohesion provides resources that help people maintain connections in their communities, and provide sources of support. In the face of climate and other disasters, these connections can foster resilience and quicker recovery times (Mahoney et al. 2024). A cohesive society is one that supports people to be happy, safe and connected (O’Donnell et al. 2024).

Indicators of social cohesion and social connection are included in many wellbeing frameworks. The OECD Well-being Framework, and the Measuring What Matters framework both include social cohesion and social connection dimensions and indicators. Each of these frameworks are relevant for understanding developments and progress in Australia’s welfare.

Social cohesion faces pressures but social connection remains strong

While several indicators of Australia’s social cohesion have declined over time – but remained stable between 2023–2024 – there are several pressure points affecting Australia’s social cohesion (O’Donnell et al. 2024). Since 2021, Australians have become more pessimistic about their own future and Australia’s future, and have become less trusting of others and less connected within their neighbourhoods; and in 2024, Australians’ levels of national belonging and financial satisfaction were historically low. Although connections and cohesion within neighbourhoods are lower, levels of happiness and participation remain resiliently high, and Australians continue to actively engage with and participate in their communities. It is this strength of the social fabric – including managing through challenging times together – that can ‘cushion’ the impact of pressure points on social cohesion (O’Donnell et al. 2024).

Measures of social cohesion and belonging are declining

The Scanlon Index of Social Cohesion remained relatively stable between 2023–2024, with an overall social cohesion score of 78 for both years (Figure 1). This is substantially below levels recorded during the COVID-19 pandemic, and is at the lowest level since the start of the Mapping Social Cohesion study in 2007 (O’Donnell et al. 2024).

Figure 1: Australia's overall social cohesion and sense of belonging scores, 2018 to 2024

Line chart showing social cohesion peaked at a score of 89 in 2020 and declined to 78 in both 2023 and 2024. Sense of belonging also peaked in 2020 at a score of 88 and declined to 77 in 2024.

Note: Index scores are based on a common set of questions that have been asked in every Mapping Social Cohesion survey since 2007. Scores are ‘indexed’ to 2007 (2007 = 100), and are calculated relative to scores recorded in this first ‘baseline’ survey. An index score of 78, for example, indicates a score that is 78 per cent of its value in 2007 – or 22 percentage points lower.

Source: O'Donnell et al. 2024.

Indicators of Australians’ sense of belonging, a subset of the overall social cohesion index, has also been steady over the last 12 months, with a score of 78 in 2023 and 77 in 2024, following several years of decline, from a peak of 88 in 2020 (Figure 1). This fall over time is largely related to smaller proportions of people reporting they take great pride in the Australian way of life and culture, and have a great sense of belonging in Australia (O’Donnell et al. 2024). While the sense of belonging scores have declined over time, more than four-fifths (85%) of Australians ‘have a sense of belonging in Australia’ to a great (47%) or moderate (38%) extent (O’Donnell et al. 2024).

We are connected with each other

Participating in arts and creative and cultural experiences and activities builds feelings of belonging, reduces social exclusion and isolation and acts as a catalyst for understanding – it provides enrichment and can have broader positive social and economic impacts (ANA 2024). In 2021–22:

  • around one-third (32%) of Australians aged 15 and over participated in cultural activities such as visual arts, music, dance and craft, similar to 2017–18 (31%)
  • around two-thirds (64%) of adults attended a cultural venue or event, down from 82% in 2017–18, however this may have been impacted by COVID-19 restrictions (ABS 2024a).

Volunteering through charities, helping run sports clubs, community and religious groups, providing unpaid assistance to people in the community and being an active member of political parties, unions and associations are important ways in which people connect with others and make positive contributions to their communities (O’Donnell et al. 2024). Each of these benefit the wellbeing and connections of others.

The proportion of Australians who undertake formal volunteering had been declining prior to the COVID-19 pandemic (ABS 2021). During the early years of the pandemic (between 2019 and 2021), volunteering rates continued to decline. The proportion of adults volunteering remained somewhat stable over 2021 and 2022, and by April 2023 rates had increased to above the pandemic low. Between 2023 and 2024, volunteering rates declined again, but remained higher than the pandemic low (Biddle 2025; Biddle and Gray 2023).

For more information about volunteers, see Volunteers.

Some of the strongest and most important social bonds are those felt within neighbourhoods and local communities, and people with regular social contact are less likely to report symptoms of loneliness. Australians continue to feel connected to their communities and have regular social interactions, although a high proportion of people experience loneliness and/or social isolation. In 2024:

  • around 4 in 5 (82%) adults agree that people in their local area are willing to help their neighbours
  • around 4 in 5 (81%) adults feel a sense of belonging in their neighbourhood
  • around 1 in 2 (49%) adults say they often (10%) or some of the time (39%) feel isolated from others, consistent since 2021 (48%)
  • around 2 in 5 (41%) adults say they often or sometimes feel left out (O’Donnell et al. 2024).

These proportions remain around or above the levels recorded since 2018 and highlight the enduring strength of Australia’s social fabric (O’Donnell et al. 2024).

There are many measures of loneliness, and these measures can vary widely. For more information about social isolation and loneliness data, including how levels of social isolation and loneliness have changed over time, see Social isolation and loneliness.

Issues affecting our social connection and cohesion

Rising cost of living affects our financial wellbeing

Cost of living pressures can have a direct effect on our social connection and social cohesion. Financial wellbeing is strongly related to trust, belonging and happiness, while financial hardship is related to having a weaker sense of belonging and less trust in government, institutions and others in society (O’Donnell et al. 2024). Social cohesion can provide emotional and practical support, friendships and social connections, which can help to lessen the burden of financial hardship on personal wellbeing and happiness and help to support wellbeing through difficult economic times (O’Donnell et al. 2024).

The current cost of living crisis has impacted many Australians, with many households having to cut back on discretionary spending and struggling to meet the rising costs of essentials such as housing, food and health care (COA 2024). For example, in 2023 more than half (53%) of Australians surveyed as part of the Melbourne Institute’s Taking the Pulse of the Nation study were 'just making ends meet or worse', and 90% of those financially stressed indicated 'they have had one or more challenges in paying bills or putting food on the table in the past three months' (Payne et al. 2023).

For information on financial pressures and cost of living in Australia, see Income and income inequality.

Immigration and diversity are valued, but discrimination remains

The strength of connection and engagement within local communities, support for multiculturalism and the contributions migrants have made to Australian society, and the foundational importance of First Nations people to society, all underpin Australia’s social fabric through difficult times (O’Donnell et al. 2024).

Most people continue to value the contribution of immigrants to Australia, and agree that immigrants are good for the economy, bring new ideas and cultures to Australia and fill important job vacancies instead of taking jobs away. However, discrimination and difficult experiences are common among overseas-born Australians. Based on data from the ABS General Social Survey (GSS), in 2020, around 1 in 6 (16%) overseas-born Australians aged 15 and over experienced some form of discrimination in the previous 12 months (ABS 2021).

In the Mapping Social Cohesion survey, around one-third (34%) of overseas-born Australian adults from non-English speaking backgrounds experienced discrimination between 2023 and 2024 on the basis of their skin colour, ethnic origin or religion. Over the same period, around two-thirds (63%) of adults see racism as a ‘very big or fairly big’ problem in Australia (O’Donnell et al. 2024).

Support for multiculturalism remains high, with 85% of adults agreeing that multiculturalism has been good for Australia in 2024. However, nearly half (49%) feel immigration levels are too high. Growing belief that too many immigrants are coming to Australia is mainly related to concerns with housing affordability and jobs (O’Donnell et al. 2024).

For more information on Australians’ acceptance of immigration and multiculturalism, see Mapping social cohesion.

Discrimination also varies across population groups. ABS GSS data shows, among people aged 15 and over in 2020:

  • people who described themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual were more likely to have experienced discrimination (30%) than people who described themselves as heterosexual (13%)
  • people with a mental health condition were more likely to have experienced discrimination (21%) than people without a mental health condition (12%) (ABS 2021).

In 2022, among people with disability (aged 15 years and over), in the last 12 months:

  • 1 in 10 (9.9%) people had experienced disability discrimination
  • 2 in 10 (19%) people with a profound or severe limitation experienced disability discrimination (ABS 2024b).

How does Australia compare internationally?

Across OECD countries, key non-economic aspects of people’s wellbeing have either worsened since 2019 or are exhibiting signs of downward risks (OECD 2024d). Compared to all OECD countries, however, Australians’ feelings around social connection and social cohesion are generally either similar or better. In 2023 (or based on the latest year of data), Australians:

  • felt emotionally supported: 92% of Australians aged 15 and over could count on relatives or friends in times of trouble, higher than the OECD average of 90%. Australia is ranked amongst the 6th highest out of 38 OECD countries on this measure (OECD 2024a).
  • were trusting of government: 52% of Australians have confidence in the national government, higher than the OECD average of 48%. Australia is ranked 14 out of 38 OECD countries on this measure (OECD 2024b; OECD 2024c).

More information on how Australia compares is discussed in International comparisons of welfare data.

Key data gaps and data improvement activities

Data improvements are underway to support reporting on the Measuring What Matters (MWM) framework. This includes the ABS undertaking to enhance and expand the General Social Survey (GSS), which will be conducted annually from 2025 onwards and data available from 2026, to deliver more timely data. An increased sample size will ensure that the survey provides insights into sub‑groups of the population. The expanded GSS will increase the number of MWM indicators and metrics that can be updated annually, for example, the life satisfaction indicator. Improvements such as this will strengthen our understanding of wellbeing and enable changes over time to be monitored more effectively. The GSS was previously conducted in 2020, 2019 and every 4 years from 2002 to 2014.

Activities are also needed to address key welfare-related data gaps, including:

  • sourcing data on primary issues of interest (for example, in MWM data on whether people have sufficient time to build connections is not available; instead, an indicator measuring the average time spent on recreation and leisure, and on social and community interaction is used)
  • providing greater disaggregation to reflect the experience of different groups and improving coverage of cohorts (for example, people with disability and unpaid carers)
  • more frequent data collection to enable better monitoring of both current conditions and barriers to improving wellbeing, and wellbeing outcomes over time (including for populations such as First Nations people, culturally and linguistically diverse people and LGBTIQA+ people) (Treasury 2023).

Where do I go for more information?

For more information on social connection and social cohesion, see:

For more on this topic, see Welfare and wellbeing.