Serving and ex-serving culturally and linguistically diverse Australian Defence Force members

Introduction

This is the first AIHW article about the culturally and linguistically diverse characteristics of people who are serving and ex-serving members of the ADF (collectively referred to as veterans).

Understanding the demographic, health and welfare characteristics of culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) veterans is important as CALD Australians can face challenges when dealing with the health and welfare system putting them at risk of poorer quality health care, service delivery, and poorer health outcomes compared with other Australians (AIHW 2025). Until now, little was known about people from CALD backgrounds who are also veterans. These veterans may have different service experiences that require tailored support during and after ADF service.

Identifying and measuring the cultural and linguistic diversity of a population can be complex, as described below. However, the introduction of a question on ADF service in the 2021 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Census of Population and Housing (the Census) has enabled population level analysis of veterans with culturally and linguistically diverse characteristics for the first time.

This article commences by providing contextual information on the demographics and health of Australians and veterans from CALD backgrounds. This is followed by a snapshot of the basic demographic, welfare and health characteristics of veterans from CALD backgrounds based on the Census. The article concludes by discussing the data sources, limitations and potential future directions for research on veterans from CALD backgrounds.

The article does not establish causal links between the observed demographic characteristics or the presence of health conditions for CALD background veterans with their CALD identity and/or impact of ADF service. While comparisons to other population groups are provided, they are purely for the purpose of context. Any differences between veteran and non-veteran-related groups cannot be directly attributed to CALD status and/or impact of ADF service alone.

Australians from CALD backgrounds

Australia has a population that includes people with culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) characteristics. In 2021 more than 7 million people (28%) in Australia reported being born overseas and the number of people who reported speaking a language other than English at home was around 6 million (23%). For more information see Cultural diversity: Census.

There is no universally accepted or official definition of cultural and/or linguistic diversity, and approaches for identifying and reporting on CALD population characteristics vary (Pham et al. 2021). For more information on the definition of CALD see Box 1.

As many indicators need to be considered to identify persons with CALD characteristics, reporting on CALD can involve multiple measures. Further, when combining the different indicators of CALD characteristics to estimate an aggregate CALD population, AIHW has found that larger CALD subpopulations will average out differences and disparities and hide health and welfare issues experienced by smaller CALD sub-groups (AIHW 2022).

In terms of age, people born outside of Australia were older than those born in Australia. The median age of Australians born overseas in 2024 was 43 years, which was higher than the 35 years for people born in Australia (ABS 2024).

People who used a language other than English at home were slightly younger with a higher proportion in the working age population than people who only spoke English at home. In 2021, 51% of Australians who used a language other than English were 20–49 years compared with 37% of those who only spoke English at home based on the ABS Census (ABS 2024).

Health and welfare

In 2022, people born in a non-main English-speaking country were more likely to rate their health as excellent or very good than other Australians (59% compared with 56%) based on the 2022 National Health Survey. This pattern was also observed for people who used a language other than English at home compared with people who spoke only English.

One factor that explains the difference between health outcomes for people with CALD characteristics and other Australians is that the aggregation into a single CALD group (such as those born overseas) hides disadvantages exhibited in some people in CALD subgroups. An example of this is the healthy migrant effect (AIHW 2022). The healthy migrant effect is explained by:

• migrants receiving health screening checks prior to entry to the host country so as to not pose costs to the host country’s health system
• eligibility criteria that require skill sets which are associated with higher educational attainment and younger ages
• immigrant self-selection, whereby the healthiest and wealthiest individuals are those most likely to have the financial resources to immigrate

Veterans from CALD backgrounds

Previously, information on veterans with CALD characteristics was limited to current serving member information collected by the Department of Defence through the ADF Census. It should be noted that the ADF Census did not include all serving members (the response rate was 47% among permanent members and 40% among reserve members) (Defence 2024).

Based on the 2023 ADF Census, 16% of current serving permanent members were born overseas. The most common country of birth outside Australia was the United Kingdom (4%) followed by New Zealand and India (each 1%). One in 5 (20%) reserve members were born overseas with the most common countries of birth being similar to permanent members. Almost all permanent (95%) and reserve members (93%) spoke fluent English (Defence 2024).

There has been limited research in Australia on the health and welfare of veterans with a CALD background. Information on the overall veteran population is available at Health of veterans.

Characteristics of veterans from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds

This article presents analysis of Australian veterans with culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) characteristics and examines aspects of their health and welfare along with other veterans, and people with CALD characteristics who have never served in the ADF. The analysis is based on information collected in the 2021 ABS Census (Box 3).

In Australia in 2021, there were 81,900 veterans who were born overseas comprising 14% of all veterans. The proportion of veterans who were born overseas was higher for regular (16%) and reserve members (16%) than it was for ex-serving members (14%). In comparison, 35% of people who had never served were born overseas.

A greater proportion of male veterans (14%) were born overseas than female veterans (13%). The proportion of male veterans who were born overseas was higher across regular, reserve and ex-serving populations compared with female veterans. In comparison, among those who have never served, the proportion who were born overseas did not vary by sex.

Most veterans who were born overseas were from a main English-speaking country (49,000 or 8.4% of all veterans) and the remainder were born in non-main English-speaking countries (32,900 or 5.7%).

In Australia in 2021, there were 21,200 veterans who used a language other than English at home comprising 3.7% of all veterans. The proportion of veterans who used a language other than English at home was much higher for regular (8.2%) and reserve members (8.6%) than it was for ex-serving members (2.9%). In comparison, among those who have never served, 25% of people used a language other than English at home.

A greater proportion of female veterans (4.1%) used a language other than English at home than male veterans (3.6%). However, this pattern varied by ADF status with the proportion being higher for regular females than males, lower for reserve females than males and similar for ex-serving females and males. Among those who had never served, the proportion of people who used a language other than English at home did not vary by sex.

Most veterans who used a language other than English at home spoke a European language (9,600 or 1.7% of all veterans) or an Asian language (9,500 or 1.6%) and the remainder spoke an Indigenous or other language (2,200 or 0.4%). For more information on First Nations veterans see Serving and ex-serving First Nations Australian Defence Force members.

There were around 11,000 veterans (1.9%) who used a language other than English at home and who were also born in a non-main English-speaking country. This proportion was higher among regular (5.2%), and reserve (4.6%) members and lower among ex-serving members (1.4%). However, the proportion among veterans was much lower than among people who have never served in the ADF (20%).

There were 1,200 veterans (0.2% of all veterans) with low English proficiency (these people indicated in the 2021 Census that they spoke English ‘not well’ or ‘not at all’). In comparison, among Australians who have never served in the ADF, 3.8% had low English proficiency. Due to the small size of this veteran population, the proficiency in spoken English CALD indicator was not further investigated (however the data are available through TableBuilder). It should also be noted that the ADF has eligibility requirements relating to English language proficiency.

Table 1 shows the number and proportion of veterans by country of birth, language other than English used at home, English proficiency and by ADF status.

Source: 2021 Australian Bureau of Statistics Census of Population and Housing, population aged 17 and older. Note that sums do not add to totals due to perturbation. Proportions based on small figures should be interpreted with caution due to perturbation. ADF status is self-identified.

Reserve and ex-serving members who use a language other than English were younger

Among regular members of the ADF, the distribution of those born in Australia and born overseas differed by age group. A higher proportion of regular members born overseas were aged 35–64 years (54%) compared to 17–34 years (46%). The pattern was reversed for regular members born in Australia with a lower proportion aged 35–64 years (38%) and the majority being aged 17–34 years (62%). The same pattern was observed in male regular members. However, among female regular members the 17–34 years group was larger for both those born in Australia (69%) and born overseas (53%). Of regular members who used a language other than English at home, 55% were aged 17–34 years while 60% of regular members who only used English were in this age group.

Among members of the reserve service, most were aged 35–64 years for both members born in Australia (62%) and born overseas (72%). This age group (35–64 years) also had the larger proportion of reserve members who only use English (65%) and the larger proportion of those who used a language other than English at home (54%).

Ex-serving members aged 65 years and over was the largest group for both members born in Australia (52%) and born overseas (54%) as well as those who only spoke English at home (54%). However, of ex-serving members who used a language other than English at home, only 32% were aged 65 years and over. Ex-serving members who used a language at home that was Asian or Indigenous were much younger than those who used a European language or only spoke English. These patterns were observed for both males and females.

In comparison, among those who have never served in the ADF, people born overseas were slightly older than those born in Australia and people who used a language other than English at home were younger than those who only spoke English at home (see Figure 1).

Most veterans from CALD backgrounds lived in major cities

Remoteness areas divide Australia into five classes of remoteness which are characterised by a measure of relative geographic access to services.

In 2021, most veterans who were born overseas lived in Major cities (70%). This proportion was higher than veterans born in Australia (60%). Similarly, a higher proportion of veterans who used a language other than English at home lived in Major cities (77%) than veterans who only spoke English (61%).

These patterns were observed for regular, reserve and ex-serving members and among people who have never served in the ADF.

A higher proportion of veterans who were born overseas (30%) and of veterans who used a language other than English at home (22%), lived in Regional and remote areas than their counterparts who have never served in the ADF (13% and 9% respectively).

A quarter of veterans born overseas had bachelor’s degree or higher educational attainment

A higher proportion of veterans who were born overseas had a bachelor’s degree or higher educational qualification (26%) than those who were born in Australia (21%). This difference was mostly due to those who were born in a non-main English-speaking country (30%). Among veterans who used a language other than English at home, a higher proportion had a bachelor’s degree or higher qualification (36%) compared with veterans who only spoke English at home (21%). The highest proportion (44%) was among veterans who used an Asian language at home.

The proportion of veterans with a bachelor’s degree or higher qualification varied by sex, age and ADF status. For both veterans born overseas and in Australia, a higher percentage of females had a bachelor’s degrees than males. The same patterns were also observed among people who have never served. Among people born overseas in particular, the difference between the sexes was larger for veterans compared with people who have never served.

Younger ex-serving members from a non-English speaking background were less likely to be employed

For veterans who are still of working age, gaining employment after separation from the ADF is an important part of the transition into civilian life.

In this section, ‘employed’ includes people who are employed full-time, part-time and employed but away from work. ‘Not in labour force’ means that a person is not working and not seeking employment.

Around 4 out of 5 ex-serving members aged 17–34 years who were born overseas were employed (78%). Among ex-serving members aged 35–64 years who were born overseas, the proportion who were employed was lower (72%). These proportions were slightly lower than similar aged ex-serving members born in Australia (81% and 75% respectively). Among those born in a non-main English-speaking country, aged 17–34 years, full-time employment was 10 percentage points lower (50%) than those born in Australia (60%).

For ex-serving members aged 17–34 years who used a language other than English at home, total employment was lower than those who spoke only English (72% compared with 81%). But proportions were similar for those aged 35–64 years (73% compared with 74%).

Among ex-serving members aged 17–34 years, both the proportion who were unemployed (7.4%) and not in the labour force (20%), were higher for members who used a language other than English at home compared with those who used only English (3.9% and 15% respectively). There are many possible reasons for a person to not be in the labour force and from this high-level analysis alone, it is not possible to deduce any reasons.

Among people born overseas and aged 17–34 years or 35–64 years, a higher proportion of ex-serving members were employed full-time than people who have never served. This pattern was also observed for ex-serving members aged 17–34 years or 35–64 years who used a language other than English at home, compared with those who have never served in the ADF.

The median total household income for Australia in 2021 was $1,746 per week (APH 2022). Household income of veterans by country of birth and language used at home were generally similar, and also similar to those who have never served.

However, among current serving (regular and reserve) members aged 17–34 years, fewer members who used a language other than English at home earned $2,000 or more per week compared with those who spoke English only. This gap was even greater for those aged 35–64 years.

More than half of veterans who used a language other than English lived in a household with 3 or more people

Most veterans born overseas lived in a household with 2 people (48%), which was similar to veterans born in Australia (47%). Of veterans aged 17–34 years, a higher proportion of those born overseas had 3 or more people in their household (50%) compared with those born in Australia (45%). This pattern was consistent for current serving and ex-serving members. Among people aged 17–34 years who have never served, the proportion with 3 or more people in their household was 67% for people born in Australian and 66% for people born overseas.

Overall, veterans born overseas lived in smaller households than people born overseas who have never served in the ADF.

Veterans who used a language other than English at home lived in larger households than veterans who only spoke English at home, with 54% having 3 or more people in the household compared with 34%. This pattern was consistent for each age group and ADF status. Of people who used a language other than English at home, fewer veterans (54%) lived in a household with 3 or more people than those who have never served in the ADF (68%).

Home ownership was similar for veterans from CALD backgrounds and other veterans

Most veterans born overseas (73%) owned their own home (with or without a mortgage), similar to the proportion of veterans born in Australia (74%). Of those born overseas, a higher proportion of veterans owned their own home (with or without a mortgage) compared with people who have never served in the ADF (64%). Among ex-serving members aged 65 years and older, a slightly lower proportion of those who were born overseas owned their home outright (69%) than those who were born in Australia (72%).

Home ownership (with or without a mortgage) among veterans who spoke a language other than English at home was similar to those who have never served in the ADF (both 62%) but was lower than veterans who spoke only English (74%). Among ex-serving members aged 65 years and older, a lower proportion of those who used a language other than English at home owned their home outright (66%) than those who only spoke English at home (72%).

Among people aged 35–64 years, a higher proportion of reserve and ex-serving members who used a language other than English at home were renting than those who spoke English only.

Ex-serving members with CALD backgrounds experience variable levels of homelessness depending on their characteristics

The proportion of ex-serving members who were estimated to be homeless or living in marginal housing was 0.5% for both those born in Australia and overseas. The proportions for people who have never served in the ADF were 0.6% for those born in Australia and 1.1% for those born overseas. The higher proportion in the never served population was due to a difference between people who were born in other main English-speaking countries (0.5%) and non-main English-speaking countries (1.3%).

The proportion of ex-serving members who used a language other than English who were estimated to be homeless or living in marginal housing was 1.2%, compared with 0.4% of those who only spoke English. This higher proportion was largely driven by ex-serving members who spoke an Indigenous or other language, of whom 6.0% were homeless or marginally housed. For more information see Serving and ex-serving First Nations Australian Defence Force members. Among people who have never served, 0.5% of those who spoke only English and 1.5% of those who spoke a language other than English at home, were estimated to be homeless or living in marginal housing. Of people who spoke an Indigenous or other language, 8.2% were estimated to be homeless or living in marginal housing.

Around 2 out of 3 veterans aged 65 and older from a CALD background were living with a long-term health condition

This section discusses the prevalence of self-reported, selected long-term health condition among veterans. The conditions analysed included: arthritis, asthma, cancer, dementia, diabetes, heart disease, kidney disease, lung condition, mental health condition and stroke (for more information see Type of long-term health condition).

Due to the different age distribution of veterans from CALD backgrounds, other veterans, and people from CALD backgrounds who have never served, analyses of long-term health conditions are based on age-specific comparisons (see Chronic conditions).

The proportion of veterans born overseas who were living with at least one long-term health condition was lower than veterans born in Australia but higher compared with people born overseas who have never served in the ADF (Table 2).

Source: 2021 Australian Bureau of Statistics Census of Population and Housing, population aged 17 and older. Proportions based on small figures should be interpreted with caution due to perturbation. ADF status is self-identified.

Similarly, the proportion of veterans who used a language other than English at home and were living with at least one long-term health condition was lower than those who only spoke English but higher than the equivalent population who have never served in the ADF (Table 3). These patterns were observed for both serving and ex-serving populations.

Source: 2021 Australian Bureau of Statistics Census of Population and Housing, population aged 17 and older. Proportions based on small figures should be interpreted with caution due to perturbation. ADF status is self-identified.

One in 8 veterans born overseas had a mental health condition

Around 10,500 or 12.8% of veterans born overseas had a mental health condition in 2021, making it the third most common long-term health condition overall. The prevalence of mental health conditions was highest for veterans born overseas aged 35–64 years (14%). There was a large difference in the prevalence of mental health conditions among ex-serving members and current serving (regular and reserve combined) members. The difference was consistent across those born in Australia and overseas and in each age group. Further information can be found in the next section.

In comparison with veterans born in Australia, veterans born overseas had a lower prevalence of mental health conditions across current and ex-serving for each age group except 65 years and older which was similar. In comparison with people born overseas who have never served in the ADF, a higher proportion of veterans born overseas had a mental health condition across each age group.

A lower proportion of veterans who used a language other than English had a mental health condition (10%) than veterans who only spoke English (14%). Among veterans who used a language other than English at home, the proportion with a mental health condition was higher for females (11%) than males (9.5%). Relative to those who have never served in the ADF, a higher proportion of veterans who used a language other than English had a mental health condition across each age group.

The most common health condition among ex-serving members from CALD backgrounds was arthritis

This section focuses on comparisons across similar aged groups because chronic conditions become more common with age (see Chronic conditions).

The most common long-term health condition overall for ex-serving members born overseas and for those who used a language other than English at home was arthritis (21% and 14% respectively). This was followed by heart disease (15%, for those born overseas) and other long-term health conditions (14%, for those who used a language other than English). See Figure 2 for a detailed breakdown.

The most common long-term health conditions for current serving and ex-serving ADF members with CALD characteristics by age group were:

• current serving members, 17–34 years, asthma affected 3.1% of those born overseas and 4.1% of those who used a language other than English at home
• ex-serving members, 17–34 years, mental health conditions affected 12% of those born overseas and 11.4% of those who used a language other than English at home
• current serving members, 35–64 years, arthritis affected 8.9% of those born overseas while other conditions affected 6.7% of those who used a language other than English at home
• ex-serving members, 35–64 years, mental health conditions affected 17% of those born overseas and 14% of those who used a language other than English
• veterans 65 years and older (all are ex-serving due to compulsory retirement age), arthritis affected 28% of those born overseas and 26% of those who used a language other than English.

Among veterans who are 65 years and older, mental health conditions are less prevalent relative to other age-related chronic conditions. They are the 6^th most common long-term health condition among veterans born overseas (13%) and among those who used a language other than English at home (11%).

Figure 2 shows the prevalence of each long-term health condition by country of birth, language used at home, sex and age group.

Around 1 in 5 ex-serving members aged 65 and older from CALD backgrounds needed assistance with core activities

Around 1 in 5 ex-serving members (18%) aged 65 years and older and born overseas needed assistance with core activities including self-care, body movement and communication, due to a long-term health condition or disability, slightly less than the proportion (21%) of ex-serving members aged 65 and older born in Australia.

Among ex-serving members aged 65 years and older who used a language other than English at home, 23% needed assistance with core activities, slightly more than the proportion (20%) of ex-serving members aged 65 and older who spoke only English at home.

Among people born overseas, aged 65 years and older, a lower proportion of ex-serving members (18%) needed assistance with core activities than those who had never served in the ADF (22%). This pattern was reversed for younger people born overseas. For those aged 35–64 years, 5.9% of ex-serving members and 2.9% of those who had never served needed assistance. For those aged 17–34 years, 3.1% of ex-serving members and 0.7% of those who had never served needed assistance.

The same pattern, among ex-serving members and those who had never served, was also observed for people who used a language other than English at home.

More veterans who used a language other than English had carer responsibilities than English-only speaking veterans

In 2021, 14% of veterans born overseas provided unpaid assistance to a person with a disability, health condition, or due to old age, which was the same proportion as veterans born in Australia. The proportion of veterans born overseas who provided unpaid assistance was higher across each age group compared with people born overseas who have never served in the ADF. The group with the highest proportion of carer responsibility was people who have never served, aged 35–64 years, who were born in Australia (19%).

A higher proportion of veterans who used a language other than English at home (18%) provided unpaid assistance than those who only spoke English at home (14%). This pattern was consistent for both current serving and ex-serving members and across each age group. Among people who used a language other than English at home, the proportion of veterans who provided unpaid assistance was higher across each age group compared with people who have never served in the ADF. The group with the highest proportion of carer responsibility was ex-serving members aged 35–64 years who spoke a European language other than English at home (27%).

Data sources on veterans from CALD backgrounds

ABS Census of Population and Housing

The analysis outlined in this article is drawn from the 2021 ABS Census. The 2021 Census was the first census to include a question on previous or current Australian Defence Force (ADF) service. The Census also collected information on the country where a person was born, whether they use a language other than English at home and how proficient they are in spoken English. This article includes veterans from a CALD background, based on their responses to those 3 questions, who had previously or currently served in the ADF.

There are also additional CALD indicators that were collected in the Census that were out of scope for this analysis including country of birth of parents, year of arrival in Australia, religious affiliation and ancestry. For more information see Cultural diversity | Australian Bureau of Statistics.

Other data sources

In addition to Census data, there are various survey and administrative data sources that can provide information on veterans from CALD backgrounds. The data relies on people self-identifying as culturally or linguistically diverse. Some data sources rely on self-identification of veteran status, whereas others do not. The downloadable supplementary table provides an overview of CALD data sources.

Many of the data sources on veterans from CALD backgrounds are enhanced through data linkage which can integrate data on veterans with data on people from CALD backgrounds and data on health or welfare:

1. the National Health Data Hub (NHDH) includes Emergency Department (ED), National Death Index (NDI), Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), Medicare Benefits Schedule (MBS), Aged Care Services, and National Insurance Disability Scheme (NDIS) data. The NHDH includes DVA client / card holder status.
2. the Person Level Integrated Data Asset (PLIDA) combines information on health, education, government payments, income and taxation, employment and population demographics (including the Census) over time. PLIDA includes ADF status and DVA client/card holder status.

These data assets can be used to access some of the data listed in the supplementary Data sources on CALD veterans.

Future directions

This article provided an overview of existing knowledge, presented exploratory analysis using Census data, and outlined information on data sources on veterans from CALD backgrounds. There are challenges in identifying veterans from a CALD background because of the varied indicators that are used to identify cultural or linguistic diversity and the heterogeneity of people within a CALD population.

Further research would require investigations of data quality for information that indicates persons are in a CALD population. In addition to data availability constraints, some research may be constrained by small sample sizes, particularly for analysis of statistically rare events such as deaths by suicide.

An important consideration of using Defence personnel data for further research would be understanding the likelihood of persons choosing to identify that they are from a CALD background to Defence. There may be a reduced likelihood when compared to disclosing this same information to the ABS (as is done in the Census).

Results presented in this article suggest that veterans born in a non-main English-speaking country or veterans who use a language other than English at home may have poorer wellbeing outcomes than veterans born in Australia. Investigating this in more detail could be a focus of further research. It may be valuable to build a better understanding of care and support that is culturally appropriate for CALD background veterans based on lessons learned from the broader population.

Other future lines of enquiry could include:

• ADF service characteristics
• Social factors of wellbeing, such as caring responsibilities
• Suicidality and intentional self-harm leading to emergency department or admitted hospital care as well as causes of death
• Examining burden of disease.