Homelessness services

Preventing childhood and youth homelessness is important for avoiding lifelong housing insecurity and persistent homelessness (Scutella et al. 2012). Longitudinal research into Australians experiencing homelessness and housing insecurity found that half of the participants first experienced homelessness before the age of 18–25 (Scutella et al. 2012).

On Census night in 2021, almost 1 in 4 Australians who were experiencing homelessness (24% of the homeless population or 28,900) were aged 0–18, an increase from 25,800 in 2016 (ABS 2023). The homelessness rate of those aged 12–18 experiencing homelessness peaked in 2011 at 55 per 10,000 population, falling to 53 per 10,000 in 2021 (ABS 2023). However, Census estimates may under-represent the extent of youth homelessness, particularly as young people who are couch surfing may report their usual address as the household in which they are staying on Census night (ABS 2023). 

Pathways into homelessness

Homelessness among children and young people often stems from individual and structural factors (Mackenzie et al. 2020; Flatau et al. 2022). Individual factors including difficult family relationships, domestic violence, trauma, leaving custodial arrangements and mental health issues can increase the risk of homelessness in children and young people (Kalemba et al. 2022; Flatau et al. 2022). Structural factors including discrimination, poverty and lack of affordable housing also underpin the causes of homelessness in children and young people (Kalemba et al. 2022; Johnson et al. 2015; Flatau et al. 2022).

Family relationships and home lives burdened by regular instances of conflict and family and domestic violence including neglect and abuse (including physical, sexual, emotional or substance related) can make a young person’s living conditions challenging and unsafe (Heerde et al. 2021; Flatau et al. 2013). Discrimination including experiences of homophobia and transphobia against children and young people can also result in family rejection, social isolation and abuse (Lim et al. 2023; Kalemba et al. 2022). While some young people may continue to live in these environments, many choose to leave despite having no alternative place to live (Kalemba et al. 2022; Flatau et al. 2013). 

Experiences of trauma and abuse in children and young people may increase mental health issues, problematic drug and/or alcohol use and school related issues (for example, suspension, academic failure) which can also contribute – directly or indirectly – to youth homelessness (Koh and Montgomery 2021; Flatau et al. 2022; Hodgson et al. 2013; Kalemba et al. 2022; Grattan et al., 2021; Heerde et al. 2020, 2021). 

Children and young people exiting the youth justice system or out-of-home-care placements, such as foster care, face an elevated risk of homelessness (Flatau et al. 2022; Alves and Roggenbuck 2021). Exiting custodial arrangements mean children and young people experience rapid and unplanned transitions into independence often without adequate support (Flatau et al. 2022; Chikwava 2024; Mackenzie et al. 2020). For more information on this cohort, see Child protection Australia 2022–23, Supporting children. 

Children and young people who experience homelessness with their family are also at a greater risk of homelessness later in life (Flatau et al. 2013). Structural factors including poverty, lack of affordable housing and insecure employment make it difficult for families to attain stable housing and can mean children and young people experience a disadvantaged start to life (Flatau et al. 2022). 

Impact of homelessness

Homelessness significantly affects children and young people’s social, physical and emotional development and overall health and wellbeing (Flatau et al. 2016; Grattan et al. 2021). Compared with their peers, children and young people experiencing homelessness experience greater levels of psychological distress, problematic drug and/or alcohol use and social isolation (Medlow et al. 2014; Murran and Brady 2023). Unstable living conditions combined with limited access to medical care, hygiene, and financial resources can increase the risk of developing and/or worsening health and mental health issues in young people experiencing homelessness (Heerde and Patton 2020; Flatau et al. 2016; Hodgson et al. 2013). The disruption to daily routines has lasting impacts on educational achievement, transition to employment and, the development of healthy and stable social networks (Murran and Brady 2023; Heerde and Patton 2020; Robards et al. 2019).

Violence experienced by young people facing homelessness can compound already complex histories of abuse and trauma (Heerde and Patton 2020). Experiences of abuse and trauma may result in distrust in interpersonal relationships and support services, making it difficult for young people to navigate the social support system, education and employment opportunities required to achieve stable housing and end the cycle of homelessness (Flatau et al. 2022, 2013; Heerde and Patton 2020). 

Without coping strategies or life resources that adults may have, children and young people are particularly vulnerable to repeat episodes of homelessness, and related harm (Alves and Roggenbuck 2021; Heerde and Patton 2020).  

Pathways out of homelessness

While housing is crucial, it alone is not sufficient to ensure long-term exits out of homelessness for children and young people (Alves and Roggenbuck 2021; Scutella et al. 2012). Children and young people experiencing homelessness require tailored support for their transition into stable housing based on their unique needs and considering the range of pathways into homelessness (Wang et al. 2019). Some children and young people that need multiple services report experiences of being seen as too ‘difficult’ and experience repeated referrals between services and/or required to engage with multiple agencies at a time, leading to confusion and fragmented support (Klassman et al. 2024; Malvaso et al. 2025; Morgan et al. 2025; Noble-Carr and Trew 2018). 

Homelessness services are often designed to support adults and may lack the capacity and resources to meet the needs of children and young people (Malvaso et al. 2025; Robinson 2017a; Mackenzie et al. 2020; DHHS 2020). Short-term accommodation service options are limited and may be inappropriate, especially for those without an accompanying parent or guardian (Morgan et al. 2025; Robinson 2017a; Noble-Carr and Trew 2018). Young people also experience unsuccessful pathways into long-term housing due to their age, income and lack of rental references (Robinson 2017a,b; Mackenzie et al. 2020). Housing conditions placed on young people, such as, employment, educational enrolment and behavioural conditions such as abstinence from alcohol and other drugs can be a barrier to young people trying to access housing (Morgan et al 2025). Insecure housing may also impact on access to other support services, which may be needed by young people to meet housing conditions (Morgan et al. 2025). These systemic barriers in service provision can make it difficult for homelessness services to achieve the best outcomes for children and young people experiencing homelessness (Morgan et al. 2025).   

Evidence from the Australian experience of youth homelessness highlights that support that addresses young people’s unique social, psychological and emotional needs, as well as their unique circumstances and priorities is critical towards facilitating the maintenance of stable housing for young people (Flatau et al. 2015; Turnbull et al. 2021). The provision of support that not only addresses their needs but also helps in developing their capacity to live independently and maintain housing stability is an important consideration for service delivery. Although the type of support required varies by young person, common supports include help with navigating different services and systems, reconnecting with family, education and employment (Mackenzie et al. 2020; Wang et al. 2019). Young people who are not afforded such support may be left unprepared and ill-equipped for independent living. In turn, increasing the risk for further harm and/or re-entry into homelessness (Alves and Roggenbuck 2021; Mendes and Purtell 2020; Turnbull et al. 2021).