Alcohol, tobacco & other drugs in Australia

Introduction

Some drugs are not commonly used in Australia but warrant ongoing monitoring due to rising trends in use or risk of harm attributed to their use, including GHB (gamma-hydroxybutyrate), ketamine and hallucinogens. 

This page focuses on GHB, ketamine and hallucinogen use and harms in Australia. There is currently no available data on treatment for these drugs.  The reporting uses data from a range of sources, mostly national administrative and survey data. For related information on wastewater drug monitoring (including ketamine), illicit drug seizures and arrests, see Illicit drug markets and drug-related law enforcement activities.

What data sources are available?

There are a range of data sources that contain information about GHB, ketamine and hallucinogen availability, use, treatment and harms. These include self-report surveys that ask people about their use of pharmaceuticals and health administrative data sets (such as administrative data routinely collected by hospitals). Each data set uses a different methodology, and the language used to describe these drugs may also differ across sources.

For more information about each data source, see Technical notes.

What do we know about GHB use and harms?

GHB is a central nervous system depressant that is produced naturally in the body but is also produced synthetically for anaesthetic and therapeutic purposes (NDARC 2016). GBL (Gamma-butyrolactone) and 1,4-BD (1,4-Butanediol) are closely related to GHB and metabolise as GHB in the body (ADF 2025). GHB, GBL and 1,4-BD use among the general population in Australia is low but rising, with rapid increases in serious harms including ambulance attendances, hospitalisations and mortality in recent years (Darke et al. 2024). 

There are currently limited data on GHB, GBL and 1,4-BD availability and treatment. Data on use and harms is outlined below.

How many people use GHB?

The proportion of people who report using GHB in Australia is low and relatively stable, though lifetime use has risen over the past two decades. Findings from the National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS) show that, in 2022–2023:

• 0.2% of people aged 14 and over had used GHB in the previous 12 months, stable from 0.1% each collection between 2004 and 2019 (AIHW 2024, Table 5.2).
• 1.2% of people aged 14 and over had used GHB in their lifetime, up from 0.5% in 2004 (AIHW 2024, Table 5.6).

The average age of initiation of GHB use was 27.2 years – the highest among all illicit drugs reported (AIHW 2024, Table 5.17).

People who use stimulants or inject drugs report higher rates of GHB use than the general population:

• Of the 1.0% of people aged over 14 who reported recent use of methamphetamine and amphetamine in the NDSHS in 2022–2023, 11.5% reported using GHB, GBL or 1,4-BD at the same time as methamphetamine and amphetamine (AIHW 2024, tables 5.6 and 5.96). 
• Nearly 1 in 10 (9%) Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS) participants reported use of GHB/GBL/1,4-BD in the past 6 months in 2025, stable from 2024 (12%). Among people who reported recent use, GHB/GBL/1,4-BD was used on a median of four days in 2025, stable from 2024 (Sutherland et al. 2025a).
• Of those surveyed in the Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS) in 2025, 17% reported using GHB/GBL/1,4-BD in the previous 6 months, stable from 15% in 2024. Among those who reported recent use, GHB/GBL/1,4-BD was used on a median of 5 days, stable from 2024 (Sutherland et al. 2025b).

What are the harms related to GHB use?

GHB-related ambulance attendances

Data on alcohol and other drug-related ambulance attendances are sourced from the National Ambulance Surveillance System (NASS) and are currently available for six of the eight Australian states and territories (excluding Western Australia and South Australia). 

There were around 6,000 GHB-related attendances among people aged 15 and over in 2024, a rate of 33 per 100,000 population. Among these attendances:

• just over half (52%) were for males
• the highest rates of attendances were in people aged 25–34 (around 2,500 attendances, 75 per 100,000 population) and 35–44 (around 1,800, 57 per 100,000) (Table NASS3).

Between 2021 and 2023, GHB-related ambulance attendances increased substantially from around 3,200 (19 per 100,000 population) to 6,800 (38 per 100,000). The largest increase was among people aged 25–34 (from 1,600 to 3,000 attendances). Attendances decreased between 2023 and 2024, largely due to a decrease in attendances in Victoria (from around 3,700 attendances to around 2,500). This is explained by industrial action by paramedics in Victoria between March and September 2024, which resulted in fewer ambulance attendances being captured over that period. 2024 data should be interpreted with caution (Table NASS3).

GHB-related hospitalisations

Drug-related hospitalisations involving GHB have also risen in recent years. AIHW analysis of the National Hospital Morbidity Database (NHMD) showed that in 2023–24, there were 3,674 hospitalisations with a principal diagnosis relating to GHB use, up from 569 in 2015–16 and increasing by 67% from the previous year (2,200 in 2022–23) (tables NHMD3 and NHMD4). Of these 3,674 GHB-related hospitalisations:

• 1,671 (45%) were among people aged 25–34 and 1,031 (28%) were among people aged 35–44.
• There were slightly more hospitalisations among males (54% or 1,974) than females (46% or 1,699 hospitalisations) (Table NHMD3).

What do we know about ketamine use?

Ketamine is a dissociative drug originally used as an anaesthetic for medical purposes (NDARC 2021). Ketamine use has been rising among the general population in Australia, but there is currently limited or no available evidence on ketamine treatment and harms at the national level.

How many people use ketamine?

In recent years, use of ketamine has increased among the general population though rates of use remain low (AIHW 2024). Data from the 2022–2023 NDSHS showed that:

• 1.4% of people aged 14 and over had used ketamine in the last 12 months, up from 0.9% in 2019 and 0.4% in 2016 (AIHW 2024, Table 5.6).
• 4.3% of people aged 14 and over had used ketamine in their lifetime, up from 3.1% in 2019 (Figure 1; AIHW 2024, Table 5.2).
• Ketamine use was highest among people aged 20–29 years (4.2%) (AIHW 2024, Table 5.109) (Figure 1).

Use of ketamine is far more common among people who regularly use illicit stimulants than among the general population. The 2025 EDRS showed that, of people who regularly use ecstasy or illicit stimulants, 52% had used ketamine in the previous 6 months. This remained stable from 2024 (53%), following previous increases from 2009 to 2021 (Sutherland et al. 2025a).

What do we know about hallucinogen use and harms?

Hallucinogens are a group of psychedelic drugs that cause the user to hallucinate (Black and Bruno 2018). Common hallucinogens include LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), mushrooms, mescaline, salvia and DMT (dimethyltryptamine) (Black and Bruno 2018).

How many people use hallucinogens?

Recent use of hallucinogens among people aged 14 and over has gradually increased since 2007 (AIHW 2024). According to the 2022–2023 NDSHS:

• 2.4% of people aged 14 and over had used hallucinogens in the last 12 months, up from 1.6% in 2019.
• 12.2% reported lifetime use, up from 10.4% in 2019.
• Recent hallucinogen use was most common among people aged 20–29 (6.8%).
• For people who had recently used hallucinogens, 77% had used mushrooms/psilocybin (1.8% of the total population aged 14 and over) and 62% had used LSD/acid/tabs (1.5%) (AIHW 2024, tables 5.97, 5.98 and 5.99).

The 2025 EDRS showed that, of people who regularly use ecstasy or illicit stimulants, 41% had used non-prescribed hallucinogenic mushrooms/psilocybin, 35% had used LSD and 11% had used DMT in the previous 6 months. These numbers remained stable from 2024 (Sutherland et al. 2025a). The proportion of EDRS participants reporting use of hallucinogenic mushrooms/psilocybin in the previous 6 months almost doubled between 2016 (22%) and 2025 (41%) but has remained stable since around 2021 (Sutherland et al. 2025a).

What are the harms related to hallucinogen use?

Hallucinogen-related hospitalisations

AIHW analysis of the NHMD showed that in 2023–24 there were 392 hospitalisations that involved a principal diagnosis relating to hallucinogens, up from 255 in 2022–23, following a peak of 471 in 2020–21 (Table NHMD4). Of these 392 hospitalisations:

• over 2 in 5 (42% or 165 hospitalisations) were among people aged 15–24, and a further 36% (or 142 hospitalisations) were among people aged 25–34
• almost 3 in 4 (74% or 292 hospitalisations) were among males
• over half (54% or 210 hospitalisations) involved an overnight stay (tables NHMD2 and NHMD3).

Where do I go for more information?

• Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System
• Low-prevalence illicit drugs in the NDSHS