Alcohol, tobacco & other drugs in Australia

Key findings

Opioids refer to a class of drugs that include those that are derived from the opium poppy and those that are semi or fully synthetic (ACIC 2019; NSW Ministry of Health 2017). Diacetylmorphine, commonly known as heroin, is a derivative of morphine, an alkaloid contained in raw opium (ACIC 2021a).

This section focuses on the harms, availability and consumption of illicit opioids including heroin, as distinct from pharmaceutical opioids such as morphine, methadone and oxycodone. See the section on pharmaceuticals for recent trends and data in relation to the use and harms for pharmaceutical opioids.

Availability

The availability of heroin in Australia has fluctuated over time. In the early 2000s, there was a rapid and considerable reduction in the availability of heroin in Australia (commonly referred to as the heroin shortage or drought) and this was associated dramatic reductions in heroin-related overdoses (Degenhardt et al. 2004). Since then, the availability of heroin has steadily increased.

Prior to COVID-19 in 2020, the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS) showed no significant changes in the pricing, perceived availability. and perceived purity of heroin in Australia, as reported by people who inject drugs (Peacock et al. 2019). 

In 2023, the reported median price of heroin was $350 for one gram, stable relative to $400 for one gram 2022. There were changes in the perceived purity and perceived availability of heroin. More specifically, in 2023:

• The proportion of people who believed heroin was ‘very easy’ to obtain increased to 56% from 43% in 2022.
• Fewer participants perceived heroin as being ‘difficult’ to obtain (7%, compared to 11% in 2022).
• Nearly 3 in 10 (28%) participants perceived the purity of heroin as ‘high’, stable relative to 2022 (29%). The proportion of participants that perceived the purity of heroin as ‘low’ remained stable (25%) relative to 2022 (26%) (Sutherland et al. 2023b).

Data collection for 2023 took place in June and July. Changes due to the impacts of COVID-19 resulted in IDRS interviews in 2020–2023 being delivered face-to-face as well as via telephone and videoconference. All interviews prior to 2020 were delivered face-to-face, this change in methodology should be considered when comparing data from the 2020–2023 samples relative to previous years (Sutherland et al. 2023b).

The Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission (ACIC) collects national illicit drug seizure data annually from federal, state and territory police services, including the number and weight of seizures to inform the Illicit Drug Data Report (IDDR). The number of heroin detections at the Australian border has fluctuated over the past decade. Between 2011–12 and 2020–21:

• The number of heroin detections at the Australian border increased from 179 in 2011–12 to a record 622 detections in 2020–21 (an increase of 247%).
• The weight of heroin detected increased from 256 kilograms in 2011–12 to 1,247 kilograms in 2020–21 (an increase of 387%). 
• The number of national heroin seizures increased from 1,758 up to 2,130 seizures.
• The weight of heroin seized increased from 388 kilograms to a record 1,278 kilograms (ACIC 2023).

Consumption

The National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS) shows that heroin use among the general population has remained low in Australia between 2001 (0.2%) and 2022–2023 (*0.1%) (Figure HEROIN1, AIHW 2024b, Table 5.6). In 2022–2023, 8.0% of people reported heroin to be the drug of most concern to the community and 11.6% thought it caused the most deaths (AIHW 2024b, tables 11.5 and 11.3). 

* Estimate has a relative standard error of 25% to 50% and should be used with caution.

Figure HEROIN1: Lifetime^a and recent^b use of heroin, people aged 14 and over, 2001 to 2022–2023 (per cent)

View data tables >

Geographic trends

The National Wastewater Drug Monitoring Program (NWDMP) indicates that heroin consumption in Australia is relatively low but has fluctuated over time. The estimated weight of heroin consumed peaked at 1,077 kilograms in 2021–22, before decreasing to 999 kilograms in 2022–23 (ACIC 2024; Figure HEROIN2). 

Data from Report 21 of the NWDMP show that nationally:

• Between April and August 2023, the population-estimated average consumption of heroin increased in both capital city and regional sites.
• In August 2023, heroin consumption in capital cities exceeded consumption in regional areas (ACIC 2024).

For state and territory data, see the National Wastewater Drug Monitoring Program reports.

Figure HEROIN2: Estimated consumption of heroin in Australia based on detections in wastewater, 2021 to 2023

(a) “Average consumption” refers to estimated population-weighted average consumption.

Note: Report 21 covers 57% of the Australian population (62 wastewater treatment sites)

Source: AIHW. Adapted from ACIC 2024.

Poly drug use

Heroin

Data on alcohol and other drug-related ambulance attendances are sourced from the National Ambulance Surveillance System (NASS). Monthly data from 2022 are currently available for New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. It should be noted that some data for Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory have been suppressed due to low numbers. Please see the data quality statement for further information.

In 2022, multiple drugs (excluding alcohol) were involved in at least 3 in 10 heroin-related ambulance attendances, ranging from 36% in Victoria to 44% in Queensland (Table S1.11).

For related content on Multiple drug involvement see Impacts: Ambulance attendances.

Harms

Heroin is a central nervous system depressant. Like other opioids, it binds to receptors in the brain, sending signals to block pain and slow breathing.

Heroin may be snorted, swallowed or smoked, but is most commonly melted from a powder or rock form and injected. Injection comes with a range of additional harms associated with the unsanitary sharing of injecting equipment, such as the transmission of blood borne viruses like Hepatitis C and HIV (Table HEROIN1).

Source: Adapted from ACIC 2019a; Nielsen & Gisev 2017; NSW Ministry of Health 2017.

Burden of disease and injury

The Australian Burden of Disease Study 2018  found that opioid use was responsible for 0.9% of the total burden of disease and injuries in Australia in 2018 and 32% of the total burden due to illicit drug use (Table S2.5). 

Most of the burden due to opioid use was due to 2 linked diseases: poisoning and drug use disorders (excluding alcohol). Poisoning contributed to 42%, and drug use disorders (excluding alcohol) to 28%, of the total burden due to opioid use. A further 2.9% of the burden due to opioid use was attributable to suicide and self-inflicted injuries (AIHW 2022b).

Ambulance attendances

Data on alcohol and other drug-related ambulance attendances are sourced from the National Ambulance Surveillance System (NASS). Monthly data are presented from 2021 for people aged 15 years and over for New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, the Australian Capital Territory, and the Northern Territory. Attendance numbers for Tasmania, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory are reported at the total state level due to small numbers in other categories.

 For the 6 jurisdictions where heroin-related ambulance attendances data are available, in 2022:

• Rates of attendances ranged from 2.1 per 100,000 population in Tasmania to 43.2 per 100,000 population in Victoria.

In 2022, for heroin-related ambulance attendances in New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland:

• 7 in 10 (72%) of attendances were for males.
• Rates of attendance are typically higher in the older age groups. The highest rates of attendances were in people aged 35–44, in:
  • Victoria (837 attendances, 88.4 per 100,000 population).
  • New South Wales (380 attendances, 33.9 per 100,000 population).
  • Queensland (152 attendances, 21.3 per 100,000 population) (Table S1.10).

For the 5 jurisdictions where monthly data from 2021 is available, between 2021 and 2022:

• Rates of heroin-related ambulance attendances have increased across all jurisdictions, with the exception of Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory where they remained stable.

Figure HEROIN3: Ambulance attendances for heroin, by age, sex and selected states and territories, 2021 to 2022

Hospitalisations

Opioid poisoning can result in significant harm, including respiratory failure, aspiration, hypothermia and death.

In 2018–19, drug-related hospitalisations with a principal diagnosis of opioid poisoning were more likely to involve pharmaceutical opioids than heroin.

• Nearly half (46%) were due to natural and semi-synthetic opioids, 16% to synthetic opioids and methadone accounted for 7%.
• Heroin accounted for 1 in 4 (25%) (Man et al. 2021).

The age-standardised rate of hospitalisations due to heroin poisoning increased from 3.2 per 100,000 in 2017–18 to 4.1 in 2018–19. Over the same period, the rate of hospitalisations due to natural and semi-synthetic opioids decreased from 8.1 to 7 per 100,000 population (Man et al. 2021).

Deaths

Drug-induced deaths are determined by toxicology and pathology reports and are defined as those deaths that can be directly attributable to drug use. This includes deaths due to acute toxicity (for example, drug overdose) and chronic use (for example, drug-induced cardiac conditions) (ABS 2021).

People who use heroin have a particularly high risk of overdose, especially when heroin is used in conjunction with other drugs like benzodiazepines (for example, alprazolam, diazepam) and alcohol. However, there are some challenges in interpreting the numbers of heroin deaths. Heroin can be difficult to identify at toxicology because it is rapidly metabolised to morphine by the body and these metabolites cannot be distinguished from other morphine sources (for example, codeine).

Opioids, including both licit and illicit substances, have been the leading class of drug present in drug-induced deaths in Australia for the last 2 decades. While illicit opioids include opium as well as heroin, most illicit opioid deaths involve heroin – opium or unspecified opioids accounted for very few opioid-induced deaths (less than 10) in 2021 (Chrzanowska et al. 2023).

Of the 1,693 drug-induced deaths in Australia in 2022, 455 or 27%, were due to heroin–an increase from 326 deaths (or 18% of all drug-induced deaths) in 2021 (Table S1.1). The rate of deaths involving heroin has overall declined since the late 1990s, when heroin consumption was at its peak in Australia (Degenhardt, Day & Hall 2004). However, deaths involving heroin have shown an increase over the last decade, from 0.9 per 100,000 people in 2013 to 2.1 in 2018 and 2019. It has since decreased to 1.8 in 2022 (Figure HEROIN3; Table S1.1).

In 2018, deaths with heroin identified had a median age at death of 42.1 years, lower than for pharmaceutical opioids (median 46.6 years) (ABS 2019).

Figure HEROIN4: Number or age-standardised rate (per 100,000 population) of drug-induced deaths^a for all opioids and heroin only, 1997 to 2022

Treatment

The Alcohol and Other Drug Treatment Services National Minimum Data Set (AODTS NMDS) provides information on treatment provided to clients by publicly funded AOD treatment services, including government and non-government organisations.

Data from the AODTS NMDS showed that heroin was the fourth most common principal drug of concern in closed treatment episodes provided to clients in 2021–22 (Figure HEROIN4).

In 2021–22, where heroin was the principal drug of concern:

• Most (68%) clients were male and 1 in 5 (21%) were Indigenous Australians (AIHW 2023a, tables SC.9 and SC.11).
• Over two-thirds of clients were aged 30–39 (35% of clients) or 40–49 (33%) (AIHW 2023a, Table SC.10).
• The most common source of referral was self or family (43% of treatment episodes), followed by a health service (28%) (AIHW 2023a, Table Drg.55).
• Counselling and assessment only were the most common main treatment types (both 21% of treatment episodes), followed by pharmacotherapy (19%) (AIHW 2023a, Table Drg.54).

Figure HEROIN5: Treatment provided for own use of heroin, 2021–22

Source: AIHW 2023, tables Drg.1, SC.11 and Drg.54.

Treatment agencies whose sole function is prescribing or providing dosing services for opioid pharmacotherapy are excluded from the AODTS NMDS. Due to the multi-faceted nature of service delivery in this sector, these data are captured in the National Opioid Pharmacotherapy Statistics Annual Data (NOPSAD) collection.

NOPSAD data showed that, on a snapshot day in 2022, 36% of clients across Australia reported heroin as their opioid drug of dependence. However, these data should be used with caution due to the high proportion of clients with ‘Not stated/not reported’ as their drug of dependence; this was the case for 38% of clients overall (AIHW 2023b).

Further information on pharmacotherapy in Australia >

At-risk groups

• Indigenous Australians are overrepresented in treatment services for heroin as the principal drug of concern. 
• Heroin is commonly injected and so its use is overrepresented among people who inject drugs.